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Background and purpose: Çadmium is one of the toxic elements which contaminate water resources through industrial, domestic, agricultural effluents and un hygienic burdening of industrial and urban waste materials. Studies shows that surface and subsurface waters in some areas near to the pollutant sources are contaminated with cadmium 0.1 to 1.0 mg/l. No study has been done about omiting the low concentrations of cadmium (poresent in the contaminated resources) with the help of activated carbon, determination of isotherms and the influencing factors on it. The aim of this study was to determine cadmium absorption isotherm on activated granular carbon GÂÇ, and also determine the effect of temperature and water pH on absorption isotherms. Ând finally determine the rate of efficacy of using activated carbon column in omition of cadmium from water.
Materials and methods: Çertain weights of activated carbon (0.05-0.07 gram) were added seperately to 250 ml of water with certain concentration of cadmium present in flask and pH was adjested, the flasks were kept in refrigerated incubater equiped with shaker, temperature was edjusted. Ïn order to determine the time equilibrium of abserption, the flasks were shaked with duration of 30 minutes to 6 hours in incubator. Ât each time interval the concentration remained cadmium in solution after fillration of the samples were measured according to the standard by atomic absorption mwthod. With the help of data concerning experiments on determination of isotherms, synthetic of cadmium absorption on sctivated carbon, the effect of activated carbon on the speed of absorption, effect of initial cadmium concetration on coefficient of absorption. Âs well as the effect of temperature changes and pH on isotherms was determined. The rate of cadmium absorption on activated carbon column at work conditions, was comared with the expected rate on isotherm. Break through curves related to cadmium containing water for concontration of D.26 mg/L. for at the of ËBÇT for 30 minuts and for the Çoncentration of 0.59 mg/Li for at two contact time of 30 and 60 minuts were plotted.
Results : The rate of cadmium absorption on activted carbon increased with increasing in pH and temperature. Though by increasing initial concentration of cadmium the rate of its absorption on Ünit Weight of autivated carbon(9) increased. But removing efficiency Çertain amount of activated Çaobon declined. Çadmium absorption on activated Çarbon Fllew the first order of kinetic. By increasing the rate of cutivated Çarbon, absorption of Çadmium increased. For Çoncentration of of Çadmium, the break through offer passing water was 55 folds more on bed volume and for Çocentration of 0.59 mg/Lifor after Passing was 40 fold of volume accured The rate of Çadmium uptake on Çolumn of Gac was more than the expected rate of isotherm.
Çonclusion: Though Çomplate removal of 0.26 mg/Lifor and 0.59 mg/Lifer of Çadmium of water through activated Çarbon column is possible. But the break through in the plot related to the performance of the Çolumn is partially happens soon.

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Background and purpose :Kidney colitis is a common urologic emergenc. Ïn this double blind clinical trial, the effect of intra cutaneous injection of slerile distilled water (D/W) in the treatment of kidney colitis is studied, is studied.
Materials and methods : Total number of 100 patients suffering from kidney colitis were randomly and egualy devided into control and cuse groups. Those patients whose kidney stone could not be proved by imaging were excluded from the study. 0.5 ml of D/W and 0.5 ml of normal saline were injected intracutaneusly to case and control groups respectively. Severity of pain was recorded by VÂS system prior to and 30 and 90 min after injection.
Results : Maen severity of pain prior to the treatment in the case and control groups were 9.86+0.40 and 6.42+ 0.19 respectively. This defference was not statistically significant (P<0.12) means for severity of pain 30 and 90 minutes after treatment in case group were 203+ 0.76 and 1.02+2.63 and in control group 5.94+4 and 6.7+4.19 respectively. The differences in means were statistically significant in both groups (P<0.001). There was no pain after injection of D/W wheras oney 34% of the patients in control group had no pain. No certain complications were observed in two groups, except for severe but transienc pain at the time of injection.
Çonclusion : Results of this study reveal that intra cutaneus injection of D/W is effective in treatment of acute pain like kidney colitis. Âdvantages of this methods are being cheap. availabity effectiveness and ease of use.

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Background and purpose: Most traditional tea shop owners use a bowl to wash tea cups in Sari city (North of Iran). There are more than 140 traditional tea shops in the city. Unfortunately most people drinking at these shops as well as health authorities do not pay attention to the health criteria of the shop. The objective of this study was to examin the tea cups washing water of traditional tea shops for contamination to fecal coliform in Sari city.
Materials and Methods: Twenty traditional tea shops (16%) were randomly selected for this study in different areas of the city. Multistage (3 stages) samples were taken from tea set of the shops. All samples were collected from the tea sets of the shops without prior notice. The samples were transferred to the laboratory in cold box as quickly as possible.
Results: Forty four samples from a total of 60 (66.6%) were positive for total coliforms. Also 32 samples (33.3%) were positive for fecal coliforms. Number of bacteria in the samples varied from zero to over 1100 per 100 cc sample. The study showed that in warmer situations the contamination was higher. The results showed that the differences between contamination rates in both groups of internal and external traditional tea shops were insignificant.
Conclusion: The results showed that only two samples in multistage sampling were not contaminated and in all other samples at least in one stage of sampling, contamination was detected. The results of this study is an important message for food administration.

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Background and purpose: Quality of hospital wastewater is similar to municipal wastewater however, due to the presence of toxic agents and pathogens in hospital wastewater, if not already treated, it is dangerous to the environment and consequently to human’s health. This research was to study the wastewater treatment and disposal condition and the quality of hospitals effluent of Babol Üniversity of Medical Sciences.
Materials and methods: This cross-sectional descriptive research studied the wastewater treatment and disposal systems condition and effluent quality in Shahid Beheshti, Shahid Yahianejad, Âmirkola children and Âyatollah Roohani hospitals. 72 mixed samples were collected and tested for pH, BÔD5, ÇÔD, TSS and TÇ in the effluents of wastewater treatment plants using the current standard methods.
Results: Mean values of pH, TSS, BÔD, ÇÔD and total coliforms in the inlet and outlet wastewaters from the studied hospitals were 7.5±0.6, 296±151mg/L, 400±173mg/L, 616±252mg/L, 3.1×105MPN/100 mL and 7.4±0.4, 78±36 mg/L, 84±31.5 mg/L, 150±51 mg/L and 831±509 MPN/100 mL, respectively. The mean value of free chlorine residual in outlet wastewater was 0.2 mg/L. Mean removal of TSS, BÔD, ÇÔD and TÇ in outlet %74.3, %79.6, %76.5 and %99.7, respectively.
Çonclusion: The mean value of TSS, BÔD, ÇÔD and TÇ in the outlet wastewater of the studied hospitals exceeded the maximum allowable thereshold of the environmental conservation administration, which indicate the inefficiency of wastewater treatment systems. We conclude that essential considerations must be taken into account to upgrade the studied wastewater treatment systems in terms of design, operation and maintenance.

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Background and purpose: Heterotrophic plate count (HPC) is commonly used to assess the general microbiological quality of drinking water. HPC must be less than 500 colonies per milliliter in drinking water. The aim of this study was to compare the heterotrophic bacteria of bottled water and drinking water distribution system and their relationship with water quality parameters. Materials and methods: In this study 21 samples of bottled water belonging to seven domestic brands and 15 samples of drinking water from water distribution system in Semnan were analyzed and compared for HPC. The Relationship between HPC with pH, temperature, turbidity and free residual chlorine were also determined in drinking water distribution system. Results: The results showed that HPC was lower in bottled water compared with that of the tap water. HPC has increased when the temperature increased. In contrast, HPC has decreased when free residual chlorine increased. Turbidity and pH did not influence the HPC in drinking water distribution system. Conclusion: The quality of all bottled water was consistent with the Iranian drinking water standards and also the standard levels proposed by World Health Organization. However, HPC was found more in some parts of distribution system where the residual chlorine was low.

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Introduction: Water quality has directly related to personal and public health. Therefore monitoring of water supplies and theirs sanitary conditions is very important. The aim of this study was to investigate the chemical quality of drinking water in Khoy city (West Azarbaijan province, Iran) during 2008 and 2009. Materials & Methods: This resach was a descriptive study. All data of water quality was received from Water and Wastewater Co in Western Azerbaijan province. Collected data was for 24 months from March 2008 to February 2009. The data were analyzed by using Spss and Excel software and then compared with the national standards. Results: the results showed that the mean concentration of nitrate was18.9 ± 9.4 mg / l during two years. The mean concentration of EC was 589 ±120µs/cm in the all studied wells. The mean concentration of fluoride was 0.39 ± 0.1 mg /l. The average hardness of water was 293 ±64 mg/l as calcium carbonate. Conclusion: Although the electrical conductivity and nitrate concentrations in Khoy city drinking water were lower than the standard values, the concentration had the increasing trend in two years consequently. According to average annual temperature of weather in the region, the fluoride content is lower than the standard value in all wells. The drinking water of Khoy city is calssifed in hard and very hard categories. The relation between hardness and electrical conductivity is a direct linear ratio.

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Background and purpose: Corrosion is a physicochemical reaction between metal and its surrounding that lead to changing in water quality. Corrosion causes to solve the pipelines that release the pollutants in the water. The objective of this study was to assess the scale formation and corrosion of drinking water supplies in Yasuj (Iran) in 2012 Materials and methods: This research was a descriptive and cross-sectional study. Experiments were conducted according to standard methods for water and wastewater experiment in the Water and Wastewater Co. The data were analyzed by using of Excel and Water Stability analyzer softwares. The results were compared with national and international standards. Results: The results showed that the calcium and TDS contents are not in the recommended range of national and WHO standards. The Langelier Index ranged from -0.91 to -0.43 in summer and -0.66 to -0.25 in the winter. The average of Rayznr index was 8.61±0.23 and 8.48±0.07 in the summer and the winter, respectively. The average of aggression, Puckorius and Larson indexes were 11.58, 8.13 and 0.29 respectively, which indicates the most of water supplies don’t tend to scale formation, however tend to mild corrosion. Conclusion: The results showed that water supplies of Yasuj city was mild corrosive. Therefore water quality should be control. Also water pipelines should be preserved with several modes of corrosion inhibition.

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Background and purpose: There is no specific standard on the compost maturity time of biosolids of wastewater treatment plants in Ïran therefore, the researchers made an attempt to employ different chemical and biological methods to assess the compost maturity time.
Materials and methods: Ïn this study, the sludge was obtained from the drying beds of South Ïsfahan Wastewater Treatment Plant and was then mixed with sawdust and windrow type of composting was performed to stabilize the sludge. The height, width and length of windrow were 1.2, 1.5, and 2.5 m, respectively. The windrow turning was done manually for 7-10 days.
Results: The results showed that, Ç/N ratio after 100 days of composting reached 15.1 and the NH4/NÔ3 ratio decreased with increase in the time of dewatered sludge compost. The content of volatile solids decreased up to 28.8 percent with composting time and the number of fecal coliforms reached 898 MPN/gram of total solids.
Çonclusion: Thus, biosolids compost in this study was mature and ready for use as an agricultural substrate after 100 days of composting.

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Background and purpose: Candidal denture stomatitis is a common complication. The side effects and resistance to Candida against to nystatin have led researchers to look for other antifungal compounds. According to their recommendation, using grape vinegar and rose water can be a traditional mouthwash. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of this mouthwash on Candida in clinic and laboratory. Material and Methods: The clinical and laboratory investigation of 30 patients with grade 2 and 3 candidal denture stomatitis were randomly divided into two groups and treated with nystatin or traditional mouthwash. Clinically, the Candida colony counts in saliva samples before and after treatment were analyzed. Minimum inhibitory concentration and fungicidal concentration were obtained on Candida isolates. Results: Clinical symptoms improved in all patients with traditional mouthwash, while this rate was 69.23% for nystatin. All patients were satisfied in traditional mouthwash treatment, while3 9% of nystatin group were satisfied. Experimental results showed that both groups, the number of colonies of Candidaalbicans reduced in saliva. Most species of isolates was Candida albicans (81.81%). The MIC and MFC traditional mouthwash were 3.125 and 12.5 respectively Conclusion: Due to the efficacy and not having side effects in traditional mouthwash, and the patients’ complaints of the side effects of nystatin, traditional mouthwash grape vinegar and rose water can be administered as a pharmaceutical composition for the treatment of denture stomatitis candidiasis (Clinical Trials Registry Number: IRCT2013042713136N1)

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Background and purpose: North cities in the southern Caspian Sea, especially Mazandaran and swimming beache is constantly exposed to microbial contamination that can be dangerous for swimmers and tourists health. The present study aimed to evaluate the microbial contamination of swimming water in the Caspian shores of Mazandaran province. Materials and methods: For reviewing the microbiological status of some swimming water of the Caspian Sea in Mazandaran province beach, five stations were studied i.e. Fereidoon kenar, Babolsar, Joibar and Sari during January to March 2010. Mean total coliform, aerobic bacteria, fecal streptococci and Escherichia coli were determined by standard methods. Results: Results showed that mean number of aerobic bacteria in Joibar station, in summer with 187 cfu/ml of sea water in minimum and in Sari station with 5800 cfu/ml of sea water was highest number. The lowest mean total coliforms in winter from Joibar station was less than 10 cfu/ml of sea water and maximum number with 2700 cfu/ml of sea water was reported from Sari station in autumn, minimum Escherichia coli less than 10 cfu/ml of sea water in winter from Joibar station and in the autumn with 1600 cfu/ml of sea water was the maximum number in Sari station. Conclusion: The study showed all coastal areas of the Mazandaran province were contaminated. This study indicated that the coastal waters of the Mazandaran province pollutants can be dangerous for swimmers and tourists health.

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Background and purpose: Guilan province, with unique environmental values is located in southwest of the Caspian Sea. Disposal of untreated domestic, industrial and agricultural sewage to the surface of water pollutes the coastal waters of the Caspian Sea. Due to many pollutants in these swages they could endanger the health of swimmers. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the microbial contamination of water in the Caspian shores of Guilan province. Materials and methods: In this study 21 littoral swimming areas in Guilan were studied regarding microbial contamination by microbial indicators of fecal and total coliform with pH, temperature and turbidity during 2009-2010. In each swimming area six samples were taken during the study period. The data from the total of 122 samples were analyzed using statistical software. Results: The results showed that the mean of total coliform and fecal coliform was 234.8 and 60 MPN per 100 ml, respectively. The mean of total coliform in swimming areas 1 and 2 were 1445 and 600 MPN per 100 ml, respectively. Fecal coliform in swimming areas 1, 2, 6, 8, 9 and 10, was 195.3, 163.5, 131.5, 111.7, 127.8, 118.8 MPN per 100 ml, respectively. Significant correlation was found among temperature, turbidity, and microbial contamination (P<0.05). Conclusion: The results indicated that the mean of total coliform in two swimming areas and the mean of fecal coliform in six swimming areas were more than the standard level. Therefore, these swimming areas are considered as a microbial threat to swimmers.

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Background and purpose: In order to identify the impact of aquaculture effluents systems, industrial, agricultural and residential centers, between the output of water from Lar dam up the water input to the Caspian Sea in 7 different stations, river water quality parameters from October 1388 to September 1389 was studied and evaluated with water quality index. Materials and methods: This experimental study was conducted on Haraz river. In order to identify the impact of aquaculture effluents, industrial, agricultural and residential centers, between the output of water from Lar dam up the water input to the Caspian Sea in 7 different stations, river water quality parameters from October 1388 to September 1389 studied and evaluated. Sampling, sample preparation and analysis, according to standard methods (1998) were done. Results: Results of statistical analysis data indicate that the parameters of BOD, TS, EC, turbidity, nitrate, phosphate, and fecal coliform in the effluent entering the river to the plains and the confluence with agricultural and residential centers based on indicators of water quality NSFWQI class average was 70-50 with a range of indicators, while the downstream station (station Sorkhrood) of these indicators in the months except January, June and July reduced to below 50 and as a region with poor water quality (pollution) were identified. Conclusion: Haraz river water at 6 stations (output from Lar dam until Karesang station) based on NSFWQI water quality index evaluated. The range of average quality index was 70-50, while in the downstream stations (station Sorkhrood), the value of these indicators, reduced to below 50, except for the months January, June and July. The station Sorkhrood was identified as an area with poor water quality (pollution).

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Background and purpose: High concentrations of heavy metals in industrial and domestic wastewater cause adverse effects on the environment and human health. Therefore, removing heavy metals from water resources is considered as a positive step towards sustainable development. Today, application of artificial wetlands to remove pollutants such as heavy metals is increasing due to high costs of construction sites, low operation, maintenance, and energy needs. Materials and methods: This experiential research was carried out in a pilot scale in adjacent of wastewater treatment plant in the campus of Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences. The pilot was composed of four rectangular concrete reactors with 6 × 1.5 × 0.8 m length, width and affective depth. One reactor was used as control. The research was performed in five phases. Different hybrid systems of the reactors (combination of vertical and horizontal with parallel and series flow) were evaluated. The samples were digested using an acid digester and concentrations of lead and cadmium were analyzed using atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The data was analyzed using SPSS. Results: By increasing the hydraulic retention time (HRT) from 2 to 6 days, the mean percentage for removal of studied metals increased to 58 (which was 42 at the beginning). Among the different phases, phase four was more efficient which removed 54% of the heavy metals while the lowest removal percentage was detected in phase one. The average percentage removal of cell output for reed planting and the controls were 65% and 35%, respectively. These differences were statistically significant (P≤ 0.05). Conclusion: The findings of this research showed that combination of DF-UF (down flow-Up flow) reactors was the best condition for the removal of lead and cadmium from subsurface wetlands. The optimal hydraulic retention time was 4 to 6 days and 10 to 20 mm gravel could be more appropriate for the size of gravel in wetland.

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Background and purpose: Water and soil pollution with heavy metals are among serious ever-growing environmental problems. Human activity accounts for much of the poisonous metals and results in increases soil pollution. There are many factors related to soil and plants properties and environmental issues. Release of heavy metal into food chain in critical densities has harmful metabolic and physiologic effects on living creatures. Materials and methods: Three regions including Movaram Kola, Seyyed Mahalleh, Jouybar Mahalleh Kola located in Sari, Jouybar and Qaemshahr (central regions of Mazandaran province) were investigated to determine the concentrations of heavy metals in paddy fields irrigation and Tarom rice within 2010-2011 agricultural year. Sampling included samples of irrigation with water and rice, and field study for qualitative and quantitative properties of rice. Sampling and test method of heavy metals was in accordance with suggestive method of standard book of method. Finally density of heavy metals of samples was measured using atomic absorption machine. For statistical calculation and quantitative study of data Prism, Stata 11 and t-test were applied. Results: In the studied water samples, level of cadmium in Seyyed Mahalleh was higher than standard level which is worrying due to accumulative effect of cadmium. In addition, level of cadmium in rice samples of Jouybar (Mahalleh Kola) and Seyyed Mahalleh was higher than standard level. Levels of chrome in all studied areas were lower than standard levels. Conclusion: Accumulative effects of heavy metals and their harmful effects on human societies could endanger food safety, therefore, more precautions are needed to reduce such effects.

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Background and purpose: Nosocomial outbreaks of legionnaires’ diseases are usually related to contamination of water sources. This survey investigated the frequency of mip gene in cold and warm water taps and water containers of infant incubators containing legionella pneumophila in hospitals of Guilan province, Iran. Materials and methods: This cross-sectional study used 140 samples. They were collected directly from sterile containers and were concentrated by centrifuge, then transferred to buffered charcoal yeast extract including both L-cyctein, Fe2+ ,glycin, and vancomycin and were incubated for 2-4 days. DNA was extracted using boiling method and PCR was performed to investigate legionella, mip gene and bacterial contamination using different primers. Results: About 8.5% of the samples contained legionella pneumophila that 11.1% were isolated from infant incubators and 5.8% were found in hot and cold tap waters. Mip gene was found in 2.8% of the samples. One third of incubator’s legionella pneumophila and half of the legionella pneumophila in hot water taps contained mip gene while the samples from cold taps were not found with mip gene. About 87.2% of negative samples showed bacterial contamination. Conclusion: Today sterile water is used in incubators, however, legionella and bacterial contaminations are considerably high. This may be due to long-term storage of water in incubator container that is a predisposing factor for biofilm formation. In this study high temperature of hot water system and high rate of free residual chlorine in tap water system were the main causes of low rate legionella contamination which did not influence the contamination rate with other bacteria.

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Background and purpose: Fluoride is one of current anions in water and soil, but its level varies in different water supplies. Most of the body's requirement for fluoride is supplied through drinking water, therefore, water utility authorities and monitoring organizations should closely control the level of fluoride in drinking water. The aim of this study was to measure the level of fluoride in water supplies of Gonbad-e Qabus. Materials and methods: In this cross-sectional study we collected the data regarding the tests conducted on water resources from Gonbad-e Qabus Water and Wastewater Company. The data was analyzed and compared with WHO and national standards. Results: The results showed that the concentration of fluoride ion in the cold and warm seasons ranged between 0.32-0.54 and 0.31-0.52 mg/l, respectively which were found lower than the standard levels. Conclusion: Considering the temperature of this city, it seems that the fluoride content of drinking waters is lower than the recommended range for preventing dental caries. Therefore, further studies are needed on the daily fluoride intake of through various means. In places were the fluoride level is lower than the optimal level, adjusting its levels in water could be useful to compensate dental health.

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Background and purpose: Using Water Quality Indices are necessary for monitoring the quality of water in various applications, including agriculture. This study aimed to assess the quality of Takab Sarugh river right branch by WILCOX index. Materials and methods: In this cross sectional study some quality parameters including water temperature, sodium, calcium, magnesium, total hardness, pH, electrical conductivity, sodium adsorption rate, total dissolved solids were measured monthly in five stations located along the river during spring and summer 2011. EC and SAR levels changes toward river discharge were determined for each station. Also, quality of water in each station was determined using WILCOX diagram and geographical information system. Results: The maximum SAR and EC values (1.3 and 1368 s/cmµ, respectively) were found in station C in September, while the lowest values were seen in station A in May. Results showed that the concentration of parameters decreased when the river flow increased. Based on SAR index the quality of water was in class S1 (low alkaline risk) and the EC was fluctuating between C1, C2, C3 classes (salinity risk: low, medium, and high, respectively). Conclusion: The results showed that quality class of river water in low water season decreased into moderate class from good and excellent classes. Probably sedimentary rocks, limestone springs and effluent of a gold extraction factory located in the studied area resulted in declining quality of water.

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Background and purpose: Analysis, monitoring and control of water quality, including water and sanitation and health care are the duties of companies. Because of the quality of drinking water, a comprehensive research was carried out in Savadkooh, Iran, in this study. Materials and methods: Data of Water and Sewage Company of Savadkooh were analyzed during 2010 and 2011. Water samples were seasonal (chemical) and month (biological) sources water in Alasht Spring by Halli Khamen Spring and a well and two reservoirs in Zirab Spring, Golnab Valleys and wells No. 4 and 5 as well as their reservoir, and in Shirgah were wells No. 1 and 4 and 5 and the water reservoir and springs Golnab valleys in Polsefid by Flord Spring and water and sewage company of Savadkooh repository which were analyzed in the laboratory. Results: In Polsefid, the mean total hardness, mean electrical conductivity and the average pH were 173 mgCaco3/l, 359 µS/cm, and 7.8, respectively. The amounts were 168 mgCaco3/l, 286 µS/cm, and 8 in Zirab, 184 mgCaco3/l, 344 µS/cm and 7.8 in Shirgah, and 172 mgCaco3/l, 333 µS/cm and 7.9 in Alasht, respectively. In Polsefid, 87% of samples in 2010 and 85% in 2011, in Zirab, 91% of the samples in 2010 and 100% in 2011, in Shirgah and Alasht, all the samples in 2011 and 2012 were coliform-free. Nitrite and nitrate levels in all water samples in were lower than standard and in acceptable level. In all samples, residual chlorine was at optimal level, and the amount of fluoride was less than desirable. Conclusion: Hardness of all the cities water were described as moderate and acceptable. The electrical conductivity of the water in all areas was desirable. The pH of water samples in all the cities were within acceptable limits. The amount of fluoride in the water samples was well below so that it requires to be taken into consideration.

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Background and purpose: Safe drinking is water that does not have any chemical and microbial contamination. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline standards for drinking water total and fecal coliform the indicator of fecal contamination must not be detectable in any 100 ml samples. Pollution indicator bacteria such as coliforms and fecal coliforms were enumerated using a multiple-tube fermentation method. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the microbial quality of domestic water wells in rural areas around Sari, Iran with most probable number (MPN) test. Materials and methods: In this cross-sectional study, the microbial quality of water samples from 23 domestic water wells in some villages of Sari were randomly tested in twice to determine the presence of total coliform (TC) and fecal coliform (FC) by the MPN. Sampling and sample transportation and sample analysis were done according to water and wastewater standard methods. Results: The results showed that 87 and 70% of the samples presented total and fecal coliforms, respectively. Water samples of 16 wells were bacteriologically nonpotable. Besides, the results showed that the bacteriological quality of the 3 wells was within the acceptable limits set by WHO guidelines and therefore was safe for human consumption. Conclusion: The results of the study suggested that the level of fecal contamination in domestic water wells was very high. The bacteriological quality of water was not according to the standard of WHO guidelines for drinking water. Therefore, using and drinking water from domestic water wells can pose a great threat and risk of waterborne epidemics by bacterial pathogens to the population consuming it. Water supplying authorities should consider this situation and take measures for the provision of contamination free drinking water to prevent waterborne disease outbreaks.

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Background and purpose: The irrigation fluid that routinely used during percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) has systemic absorption. The aim of this study was comparing the efficacy and adverse effects of sterile water and normal saline as an irrigant fluid in PCNL. Materials and methods: Ninety four older than 18 years old patients with renal or upper ureteral stones that were candidate for PCNL randomly allocated in two groups. Patient with American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) score 3 and 4 and history of hemolysis excluded from study. From all patient, serum base laboratory and serum electrolyte was taken. Then, under spinal anesthesia PCNL was done with fluoroscope guidance in standard method with use of normal saline in first group. In second group, PCNL with fluoroscope guidance in standard method with use of sterile water was done, too. Preoperative, intraoperative and postoperative variables such as serum sodium, potassium and haptoglobin, cost and duration of surgery, pulmonary and cardiovascular complications compared between two groups. Data was collected and analyzed using chi-square and paired -t tests. Results: Demographic characteristics, operation time, serum electrolytes and volume of irrigation fluid were similar in two groups. Mean postoperative haptoglobin in group one and two were 1.15 ± 0.38 and 1.29 ± 0.53 mg/dl respectively (P = 0.263). Mean cost in group one and two were 117,234 and 25,400 Rial, respectively and there were no cardiovascular and pulmonary complications. Conclusion: Use of sterile water as an irrigation fluid in PCNL is inexpensive, safe and more available and have not more complications in compare with normal saline that can be used as an alternative fluid in PCNL operation.